# Example: Managing hard-links on an ISO
PyCdlib supports an advanced concept called hard-links, which is multiple names for the same piece of data (this is somewhat similar to Unix hard-links).  Most users will not need to use this functionality and should stick with the standard [add_file](pycdlib-api.html#PyCdlib-add_file) and [rm_file](pycdlib-api.html#PyCdlib-rm_file) APIs.  However, for those that want to do more advanced things like hiding a file from Joliet while having it remain visible in ISO9660, this functionality can be useful.

On an ISO, a piece of data can be referred to (possibly several times) from four different contexts:

1.  From the original ISO9660 context, including the Rock Ridge extensions.
1.  From the Joliet context, since this is a separate context.
1.  From the El Torito boot record, since this is effectively a separate context.
1.  From the UDF context, since this is a separate context.

The data can be referred to zero, one, or many times from each of these contexts.  The most classic example of hard-links happens when an ISO has the Joliet extensions.  In that case, there is implicitly a hard-link from the ISO9660 (and Rock Ridge) context to the file contents, and a hard-link from the Joliet context to the file contents.  When a piece of data has zero entries in a context, it is effectively hidden from that context.  For example, a file could be visible from ISO9660/Rock Ridge, but hidden from Joliet, or vice-versa.  A file could be used for booting, but be hidden from both ISO9660/Rock Ridge and Joliet, etc.  Management of these hard-links is done via the PyCdlib APIs [add_hard_link](pycdlib-api.html#PyCdlib-add_hard_link) and [rm_hard_link](pycdlib-api.html#PyCdlib-rm_hard_link).  Adding or removing a file through the [add_file](pycdlib-api.html#PyCdlib-add_file) and [rm_file](pycdlib-api.html#PyCdlib-rm_file) APIs implicitly manipulates hard-links behind the scenes.  Note that hard-links only make sense for files, since directories have no direct data (only metadata).

An example should help to illustrate the concept.  Here's the complete code for the example:

```
try:
    from cStringIO import StringIO as BytesIO
except ImportError:
    from io import BytesIO

import pycdlib

iso = pycdlib.PyCdlib()
iso.new(joliet=3)

foostr = b'foo\n'
iso.add_fp(BytesIO(foostr), len(foostr), '/FOO.;1', joliet_path='/foo')

iso.add_hard_link(iso_old_path='/FOO.;1', iso_new_path='/BAR.;1')

iso.rm_hard_link(joliet_path='/foo')

outiso = BytesIO()
iso.write_fp(outiso)

iso.close()
```

Let's take a closer look at the code.

```
try:
    from cStringIO import StringIO as BytesIO
except ImportError:
    from io import BytesIO

import pycdlib
```

As in earlier examples, import the relevant libraries, including pycdlib itself.

```
iso = pycdlib.PyCdlib()
iso.new(joliet=3)
```

As in earlier examples, create a PyCdlib object, and then create a new, empty ISO with the Joliet extensions.

```
foostr = b'foo\n'
iso.add_fp(BytesIO(foostr), len(foostr), '/FOO.;1', joliet_path='/foo')
```

As in earlier examples, add a new file to the ISO.  Here we have provided both the ISO path '/FOO.;1' and the Joliet path '/foo', so the file implicitly has two links; one from the ISO context, and one from the Joliet context.

```
iso.add_hard_link(iso_old_path='/FOO.;1', iso_new_path='/BAR.;1')
```

Add a hard-link from the original '/FOO.;1' location in the ISO context to a second location in the ISO context '/BAR.;1'.  This takes up no additional space on the ISO for the data, only for the metadata.

```
iso.rm_hard_link(joliet_path='/foo')
```

Remove the link from the Joliet context for the file.  Now this file is effectively hidden from the Joliet context, while still being visible in the ISO context.

```
outiso = BytesIO()
iso.write_fp(outiso)
```

As in earlier examples, write the ISO out to the BytesIO object.

```
iso.close()
```

Since we are done with the ISO object, close it out.

---

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